It is well known that dreams are difficult to remember in wakefulness (Fisher, 1973). Some authors have found that individuals with limbic hyper-function, as indexed by increased scores on the Limbic System Checklist, report more threatening dream content than others (Peterson, Henke, & Hayes, 2002). Several studies agree that lesions in the areas involved in visuospatial processing and representation in Unit 2, result in a reduction in, or elimination of, dreaming, a neuropsychological syndrome called anoneria. Heart rhythm control during sleep. Tsvetkova, L. S. (1996). (2014) found that in lucid dreaming, the active brain structures are the ones that malfunction in schizophrenia, and this is what prevents patients from becoming aware of their pathological state. This finding also favors the hypothesis that frontal hypo-activity and limbic hyperactivity during REM sleep is really homeostatic, meaning that an increase in emotional and motivational activity works as an escape valve during the night without the logical, reasoned, and regulating activity of the prefrontal lobe, and that during the day, the limbic activity decreases, and the dorsolateral and orbital activity of the prefrontal lobe increases. It has been shown that lucid dreams are characterized by being able to freely remember the circumstances of waking life, to think clearly, and to act deliberately upon reflection, all while experiencing a dream world that seems vividly real (LaBerge, 1990). Madsen, P. L. (1993). Vandekerckhove, M., & Cluydts, R. (2010). Meanwhile, Vogel (1979) argued that the decrease in the amount of REM sleep as a consequence of the use of antidepressant drugs, is caused by an increase in impulse-motivated behavior during wakefulness, and therefore, a clinical improvement of depression. brain fitness guide neuropsychology optimize performance age health any To answer this question, it would be of great help to describe the phenomenology of dreaming. Neural correlates of dream lucidity obtained from contrasting lucid versus non-lucid REM sleep: A combined EEG/fMRI case study. The findings cited above allow us to suggest that the nature of the oneiric content during dreaming is caused by the simultaneous inhibition of (1) the prefrontal lobe in the dorsolateral region the region that is in charge of the executive functions. Dresler, M., Wehrle, R., Spoormaker, V. I., Koch, S. P., Holsboer, F., Steiger, A., Obrig, H., Smann, P. G., & Czisch, M. (2012). Mxico: Trillas. Corsi-Cabrera et al. This Unit is responsible for emotional responses and the consolidation of the memory (Tllez et al., 2002). These are dreams where the control and direction of the oneiric process are maintained, and the dreamer is aware that he is dreaming. (2014). The frontal lobe can be divided into two regions: the motor region (Brodmann areas 4, 6, and 8) and the non-motor region, or prefrontal lobe (Areas 9, 10, 11, 44, 45, 46, and 47). doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8986.1984.tb02935.x, 11, bld. (1995). En F. Ostrosky, A. Ardila, & R. Chayo (Eds. doi: 10.1038/4371220a, Aldredge, J. L., & Welch, A. J. The contribution of cerebral hemispheric disease to the understanding of dream type and content. The content of the dream is bizarre by nature, with bizarre defined as featuring incongruities and discontinuities in the time, space, and the characters that appear in it (Corsi-Cabrera et al., 2003). To present our proposal about the generation and bizarre content of dreaming, we took as a general framework Lurias Three Functional Units Model (Luria, 1974), which attempts to explain the neuropsychological functioning of human beings during wakefulness. Muzur, A., Pace-Schott, E. F., & Hobson, J. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1995. It has been proven through PET and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) that during dreaming, there is an activation of the primary and supplementary motor areas, such as the frontal ocular area (Brodmanns area 8), which is activated by Unit1 and then collaborates in producing the rapid eye movements of REM sleep (Hong et al., 1995). luria alexander theory pass timetoast providentia shattered man romanovich aka Tonus of extrinsic laryngeal muscles during sleep and dreaming. New Jersey: Psychology Press. Mxico: Trillas. Psychophysiology, 21(3), 279289. Thus, RBD also represents an etiological model for the study of oneiric behavior. (2012). Foulkes, D. (1982). (1985). neuropsychological cognitive approach springer neuropsychology pdf (1997) found low metabolism in the orbitofrontal and dorsolateral regions of the prefrontal lobe during REM sleep, as well as in the inferior parietal association, and simultaneously, an increase in metabolism in the visual and auditory association areas of Unit 2. (1980). Psychophysiological Aspects of Sleep (pp. Toward an etho-ethnology of dreaming. neuropsychology All of this is due to a lack of critical thinking that can evaluate the coherence, or the lack thereof, of what is happening, so there is a passive and uncritical acceptance of everything that happens (Corsi-Cabrera et al., 2003). Sakai, F., Meyer, J. S., Karacan, I., Derman, S., & Yamamoto, M. (1980). It was not until 1900, however, that Sigmund Freud (1966) published his book The Interpretation of Dreams, which included the first scientific approach to the subject from a purely psychological point of view. American Journal of Psychiatry, 146(9), 11661172. Limbic system function and dream content in university students. compromised evaluation janna nemeth darlyne glozman (1981) cats and is the result of the activation of Units 1, 2, and especially L, along with the simultaneous inhibition of the prefrontal lobe. On the contrary, experiments with cats that had the coeruleus alfa nucleus damaged the nucleus which seems to be responsible for the motor paralysis during REM sleep have caused these animals to translate their dreams into behavior, which is generally manifested in rapid behavioral sequences of, for instance, attack, rage, and grooming. The conscious state paradigm: a neurocognitive approach to waking, sleeping, and dreaming. There is a proven antidepressant effect of REM sleep deprivation (Vogel et al., 1980; Nofzinger, 2005). Solms, M. (2000). (2005). Cognitive and emotional processes during dreaming: a neuroimaging view. Noreika, V., Windt, J. M., Lenggenhager, B., & Karim, A. In general, the prefrontal lobe has been associated with selection functions, programming, and direction of behavioral planning, and impulse inhibition, as well as critical and reflexive thought (Cummings, 1995; Luria, 1974; Tsvetkova, 1996). Annals of Neurology, 7(5), 471478. Meanwhile, Koukkou and Lehman (1983) have suggested that the cerebral state of an adult during dreaming corresponds functionally to the state of wakefulness during childhood, based on the similarity of the electroencephalographic activity of the different phases of sleep and in human development phases. New perspectives for the study of lucid dreaming: From brain stimulation to philosophical theories of self-consciousness. Abbott, A. Tllez, A. Anatomic and behavioral aspects of frontal-subcortical circuits. (2003). These disturbances of the dreaming process are positively correlated with the appearance of some type of agnosia (Doricchi & Violani, 1992; Kerr & Foulkes, 1981; Murri et al., 1992; Pea-Casanova, Roig-Rovira, Bermudez, & Tolosa-Sarro1985). Then, according to this hypothesis, a functional regression of cognitive activity in dreaming would imply incomplete functioning of the prefrontal lobe. Functional neuroanatomy of human rapid-eye-movement sleep and dreaming. The usual effects of sleep deprivation on the prefrontal lobes functions are well known and include irritability, lack of attention and concentration, working memory impairments, and lack of self-regulation skills (Durmer & Dinges, 2005). The social brain? Lurias Model of the Brains Functional Units can be used to explain the generation of dreams and their characteristics. This evaluation agrees with the Motivational Theory of REM Sleep by Vogel (1979), which suggests that the function of the REM phase of dreaming is to decrease the impulse-motivated behavior during wakefulness. Scientific American, 272(3), 102-110. doi: 10.1038/scientificamerican0395-100, Goldberg, E. During wakefulness, complex information processing is promoted by these regions, but they are not active during non-lucid dreaming. doi: 10.1055/s-2005-867080. The emotional brain and sleep: An intimate relationship. They also suggest that these cognitive strategies during adult dreaming are equivalent to the processes of fantasy, and are far from the reality thought of a young child during wakefulness (Piagets preoperational stage). Answering these and other questions will allow continuing progress in this new and interesting field in the neurosciences: the neuropsychology of dreaming. Studies with PET have found that the visual and auditory secondary areas are especially metabolically active during REM sleep, even above levels found in wakefulness (Braun et al., 1997; Madsen, 1993). doi: 10.1126/ science.281.5380.1188, Welsh, M. C., & Pennington, B. F. (1988) Assessing frontal lobe functioning in children: Views from developmental psychology. This explanation describes how, during dreaming, an activation of the First Functional Unit occurs, comprising the reticular formation of the brainstem; this activates, in turn, the Second Functional Unit which is formed by the parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes and Unit L, which is comprised of the limbic system, as well as simultaneous hypo-functioning of the Third Functional Unit (frontal lobe). During REM sleep, the cerebral structures that are activated and deactivated are similar to the cerebral regions damaged in the cited neuropsychological syndromes. doi: 10.5665/sleep.1974, Dresler, M., Wehrle, R., Spoormarker, V. I., Steiger, A., Holsboer, F., Czisch, M., & Hobson, J. This also supports the hypothesis that Unit 3 is inactive and not necessary for the dreaming process. Regional cerebral glucose metabolic rate in human sleep assessed by positron emission tomography. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica, 88(148), 525. 1204-1214). Brain and Language, 26(1), 6371. How can it be proven that the hypo-functioning of the prefrontal lobe and the limbic hyper-functioning during dreaming fulfill a homeostatic need for good psychological functioning during wakefulness? (2002). Themes: For example, it has been reported that the stimulation of the cingulate gyrus in humans causes complex hallucinatory phenomena, emotional changes, rapid eye movement, and oneiric sensation. This patient lost the ability to dream and also showed optic aphasia, optic apraxia, aphasia without agraphia, and color agnosia. Madrid: Alianza Editorial. This generates a general muscle paralysis (with the exception of ocular movement), that prevents the dream from becoming an action (Berger, 1961; Jouvet, Sastre, & Sakai, 1981). neuropsychological (1961). The Neuropsychology Of Sleep and Dreaming (pp. On the other hand, the recollection of dreams becomes interesting. Atencin, Aprendizaje y Memoria: Aspectos psicobiolgicos. In fact, patients with depression show an increase in the metabolism of the dorsolateral region of the prefrontal lobe during REM sleep instead of the decrease which is observed in subjects without depression. Obviously dreams have interested and captivated humanity since ancient times. JAMA, 257(13), 17861789. C) The Third Unit is formed by the frontal lobe, which is in charge of the selection, planning, execution, and direction of a persons pattern of behavior, as well as its evaluation. Foulkes (1982), whose studies were also based on Lurias work, suggested another model of brain functioning during dreaming. Seminars in Neurology, 25(1), 117129. Localized and lateralized cerebral glucose metabolism associated with eye movements during REM sleep and wakefulness: a positron emission tomography (PET) study. tb38127.x, Desseilles, M., Dang-Vu, T. T., Sterpenich, V., & Schwartz, S. (2011). Lurias model of the functional units of the brain and the neuropsychology of dreaming, Universidad Autnoma de Nuevo Len (UANL), Monterrey, Mexico, http://psychologyinrussia.com/volumes/pdf/2016_4/psychology_2016_4_7.pdf. For example, Pea-Casanova et al. luria neuropsychology pioneer This then causes a decrease in activity in the dorsolateral region of the prefrontal lobe and an increase of activity of the limbic system, preventing the regulation and evaluation of social contexts and circumstances, sensations, and emotions in a suitable way during wakefulness (Nofzinger, 2005). During REM sleep in normal people, there is an increase in the activity of Unit L and a decrease in Unit 3; however, we cannot observe the behavioral effects, due to the activation of the cerebral mechanisms that produce the muscle paralysis that comes with this type of sleep, preventing the body from acting out dreams. (1992). La Interpretacin de los Sueos. Tllez, A. doi: 10.1016/0093-934X(85)90028-8, Peterson, N. D., Henke, P. G., & Hayes, Z. Finally, we would like to mention several research questions that result from this article: What is the oneiric content in a patient with prefrontal damage? The American Journal of Psychiatry, 165(8), 969977. Mxico: Planeta. Major disorders of mind and brain. Frith, C. D. (2007). According to the model presented in this research, dreams are difficult to remember precisely because of the lack of working memory due to the relative deactivation of the prefrontal lobe. Dreaming is an active psychophysiological process that involves the presence of perceptible hallucinatory images during sleep (i.e., the visual, auditory, tactile, kinesthetic, and linguistic kind), and cognitive activity with an emotional content of variable intensity that has been generated internally (Desseilles, Dang-Vu, Sterpeinch, & Schwartz, 2011). It can be said that dreaming is a state similar to a schizophrenic or frontal lobe syndrome, but temporary, normal, and healthy, so that the next day, the brain can carry out its homeostatic function, and promote optimal functioning of the dorsolateral and orbital region of the frontal lobe during wakefulness. It also includes vital cognitive functions such as sustained attention, awareness, and insight (Luria, 1974; Cummings, 1995; Stretton, & Thompson, 2012). Regularly occurring periods of eye motility and concomitant phenomena during sleep. brain neuropsychology children parts diagram human ph february pm (1973). This is the result of an exceptional and sudden reactivation of the functioning of the dorsolateral and medial regions of the left prefrontal lobe and the temporoparietal region during REM sleep. luria brain working B., Zhao, Z., Desmond, J. E., Glover, G. H., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. Dresler et al. luria writing cognitive structure disorders russian say would spontaneous naming approach written syntactic In addition to the content of dreaming, there is an absence of control over the course of the dream scenes due to lack of the critical thinking that evaluates the coherence of what is happening; therefore, there is a passive and non-critic acceptance of what is occurring during the dream (Corsi-Cabrera et al., 2003). aphasia semantic lesions afferent luria Sleep Medicine Reviews, 14(4), 219226. A., & Stickgold, R. (1995). A) The First Unit is made up by the structures of the brainstem, specifically, the reticular activation system, thalamus, and monoaminergic cell groups in the brainstem, which function to activate and keep the general cortical tone needed to activate, the cerebral cortex, generating a state of alertness (Magoun, 1964; Grnli, & Ursin, 2009). doi: 10.1080/87565648809540405, emaityt, D., Varoneckas, G., & Sokolov, E. (1984). Sleep, 35(7), 10171020. Jouvet et al. doi: 10.1001/ archpsyc.1980.01780160017001, Wagner, A. D., Schacter, D. L., Rotte, M., Koutstaal, W., Maril, A., Dale, A. M., Rosen, B. R., & Buckner, R. L. (1998). Thus, the main proposal of this model, is that the characteristics of the oneiric content -that is, the lack of planning and control of critical and coherent thought toward what is dreamt, as well as the ease by which emotional and motivational impulses emerge in dreams basically correspond to an increase in the activity of Unit 1, 2 (with the exception of the PTO region), Unit L, and the medial region of the prefrontal lobe that occurs simultaneously with the inhibition of the dorsolateral and orbital regions of Unit 3 (Figure 1). In the case of humans, it is interesting to find a clinical sleep disorder that is similar to the oneiric behavior experimentally induced in cats. This pattern of brain activity explains the recovery of the executive metacognitive abilities and voluntary control that characterizes lucid dreaming (Dresler et al., 2012; Noreika, Windt, Lenggenhager, & Karim, 2010). doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-222340-2.50015-X, Vogel, G. W., Vogel, F., McAbee, R. S., & Thurmond, A. J. Murri, L., Bonanni, E., Stefanini, A., Goldstein, L., Navona, C., & Denoth, F. Kerr, N. H., & Foulkes, D. (1981). El sueo REM y el sistema lmbico: Aspectos biolgicos de las ensoaciones. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 769(1), 114. (2) the orbitofrontal region, that relates to the regulation of limbic impulses, as well as (3) the parietal-temporal-occipital (PTO), that is involved in visuo-spatial recognition, symbol processing, and face and object recognition. We can state that the oneiric craziness of every night is a necessary escape valve permitting the person to act sanely during the state of wakefulness. Espaa: Siglo Veintiuno de Espaa. It is well-established that lesions or dysfunction in this area in neuropsychological patients result in uninhibited, impulsive, and bizarre behavior. El Cerebro Ejecutivo: Los Lbulos Frontales y la Mente Civilizada. Corsi-Cabrera, M., Mir, E., del-Ro-Portilla, Y., Prez-Garcia, E., Villanueva, Y., & Guevara, M. A. doi: 10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2011.10.009. Variations of heart rate during sleep as a function of the sleep cycle.